Watercraft rowing is the act of propelling a boat using the motion of oars An oar is an implement used for water-borne propulsion. Oars have a flat blade at one end. Oarsmen grasp the oar at the other end. The difference between oars and paddles are that paddles are held by the paddler, and are not connected with the vessel. Oars generally are connected to the vessel by means of rowlocks or tholes which transmit the in the water. The difference between paddling With regard to watercraft, paddling is the act of manually propelling or navigating a small boat using a blade that is joined to a shaft, known as paddle, in the water. The paddle is also used to steer the vessel and may either be a single blade or a double blade affair and rowing Rowing is a sport in which athletes race against each other on rivers, on lakes or on the ocean, depending upon the type of race and the discipline. The boats are propelled by the reaction forces on the oar blades as they are pushed against the water. The sport can be both recreational, focusing on learning the techniques required, and competitive is that with rowing the oars have a mechanical connection with the boat whereas with paddling the paddles are hand-held with no mechanical connection.

This article deals with general rowing including the recreational, transportation and utility aspects of rowing, rather than the sport of competitive rowing Rowing is a sport in which athletes race against each other on rivers, on lakes or on the ocean, depending upon the type of race and the discipline. The boats are propelled by the reaction forces on the oar blades as they are pushed against the water. The sport can be both recreational, focusing on learning the techniques required, and competitive which is a specialized case of racing using strictly regulated equipment and a highly refined technique^[1].

Types of rowing systems

In some localities, rear facing systems prevail. In other localities, forward facing systems prevail, especially in crowded areas such as in Venice, Italy and in Asian and Indonesian rivers and harbors. This is not strictly an "either-or", because in different situations it's useful to be able to row a boat facing either way. The current emphasis on the health aspects of rowing, has resulted in some new mechanical systems being developed, some very different from the traditional rowing systems of the past.

Rearward facing systems: This is probably the oldest system used in Europe and North America. A seated rower pulls on one or two oars, which lever the boat through the water. The pivot point of the oars (attached solidly to the boat) is the fulcrum. The motive force is applied through the rower's feet. In traditional rowing craft, the pivot point of the oars is generally located on the boat's gunwale The gunwale is a nautical term describing the top edge of the side of a boat. The actual fitting that holds the oar may be as simple as one or two pegs (or thole pins) or a metal oarlock A rowlock or oarlock (US) is a brace[disambiguation needed] that attaches an oar to a boat. When a boat is rowed, the rowlock acts as a fulcrum, and, in doing so, the propulsive force that the rower exerts on the water with the oar is transferred to the boat by the thrust force exerted on the rowlock (also called rowlock - "rollock"). In performance rowing craft, the rowlock is usually extended outboard on a "rigger" to allow using a longer oar for increased power.

Sculling Sculling generally refers to a method of using oars to propel watercraft in which the oar or oars touch the water on both the port and starboard sides of the craft. By extension, the oars themselves are also often referred to as sculls when used in this manner involves a seated rower who pulls on two oars or sculls, attached to the boat, thereby moving the boat in the direction opposite that which the rower faces. In some multiple-seat boats seated rowers each pull on a single "sweep Sweep or sweep-oar rowing is a type of rowing when a rower has one oar, usually held with both hands. As each rower has only one oar, the rowers have to be paired so that there is an oar are on each side of the boat. This is in contrast to sculling when a rower has two oars, one in each hand. In the UK the term is less used as the term rowing" oar, usually with both hands. Boats in which the rowers are coordinated by a coxswain are referred to as a "coxed" pair/four/eight. Sometimes sliding seats are used to enable the rower to use the leg muscles, substantially increasing the power available. An alternative to the sliding seat, called a sliding rigger, uses a stationary seat and the rower moves the oarlocks with his feet. On a craft used in Italy, the catamaran moscone, the rower stands and takes advantage of his body weight to increase leverage while sculling.^[2]

Forward facing systems: Articulated or bow facing oars have two-piece oars and use a mechanical transmission to reverse the direction of the oar blade, enabling a seated rower to row facing forward with a pulling motion. Push rowing, also called back-watering if used in a boat not designed for forward motion, uses regular oars with a pushing motion to achieve forward facing travel, sometimes seated and sometimes standing. This is a convenient method of manoeuvring in a narrow waterway or through a busy harbour. Another system uses inboard mounted oarlocks to achieve forward motion of the boat with a pulling motion on the oars.

Another system (also called sculling) involves using a single oar extending from the stern of the boat which is moved back and forth under water somewhat like a fish tail, such as the Chinese yuloh, by which quite large boats can be moved.^{[citation needed]}

Ancient rowing

In ancient times, rowing boats (known as galleys A galley is a ship that is propelled by human oarsmen, used for trade and warfare. Galleys dominated naval warfare in the Mediterranean Sea from the 8th century BC to the development of effective naval gunnery in the 16th century. Galleys fought in the wars of Assyria, ancient Phoenicia, Greece, Carthage and Rome until the 4th century. After the) were extensively used during war War is a behaviour pattern exhibited by many primate species including humans, and also found in many ant species. The primary feature of this behaviour pattern is a certain state of organized violent conflict that is engaged in between two or more separate social entities. Such a conflict is always an attempt at altering either the psychological, in particular in the Mediterranean in classical antiquity Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman literature (such as Aeschylus, Ovid, Homer and others) flourished. Galleys had advantages over sailing Sailing is the art of controlling a boat with large foils called sails. By changing the rigging, rudder, and sometimes the keel or centre board, a sailor manages the force of the wind on the sails in order to change the direction and speed of a boat. Mastery of the skill requires experience in varying wind and sea conditions, as well as knowledge ships; they may be easier to manoeuvre, quicker in sprints, and able to move independent of the wind. Galleys continued in use in the Mediterranean until the advent of steam propulsion A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Their use in northern Atlantic waters was less successful, finishing with their disappointing performance with the Spanish Armada The Spanish Armada was the Spanish fleet that sailed against England under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia in 1588, with the intention of overthrowing Elizabeth I of England to stop English involvement in the Spanish Netherlands and English-sponsored piracy in the Atlantic. The fleet's mission was to sail to the Gravelines in Flanders.

The classic trireme A trireme was a type of galley, a Hellenistic-era warship that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans used 170 rowers; later galleys included even larger crews. Trireme oarsmen used leather cushions to slide over the seats, which allowed them to use their leg strength as a modern oarsman does with a sliding seat. Galleys usually had masts and sails, but when about to enter combat would lower them. Greek fleets would also leave their sails and masts on shore (as being unnecessary weight) if possible.^[3]

Venetian rowing

In Venice Venice (Italian: Venezia [veˈnɛttsia] , Venetian: Venesia) is a city in northern Italy known both for tourism and for industry, and is the capital of the region Veneto, with a population of 271,367 (census estimate 1 January 2004). Together with Padua, the city is included in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area (population 1,600,000). The name is, gondolas The gondola is a traditional, flat-bottomed Venetian rowing boat, well suited to the conditions of the Venetian Lagoon. For centuries gondolas were once the chief means of transportation and most common watercraft within Venice. In modern times the iconic boats still have a role in public transport in the city, serving as traghetti over the Grand and other similar flat bottomed boats^[4] are popular forms of transport propelled by oars which are held in place by an open wooden fòrcola^[5]. The Voga alla Veneta^[6] technique of rowing is considerably different from the style used in international sport rowing Rowing is a sport in which athletes race against each other on rivers, on lakes or on the ocean, depending upon the type of race and the discipline. The boats are propelled by the reaction forces on the oar blades as they are pushed against the water. The sport can be both recreational, focusing on learning the techniques required, and competitive, due to the oarsman facing forward in a standing position. This allows the boat to manoeuover very quickly and with agility - useful in the narrow and busy canals of Venice. Competitive regattas are also held using the Venetian rowing technique, using both gondolas and other types of vessels.

There are three different styles of Venetian rowing:

1. Single oarsman with one oar, standing near the stern of the boat (the oar also acts as a rudder)
2. One or two oarsman each with two crossed oars (known as a la valesàna)
3. Two or more oarsmen, rowing on alternate sides of the boat

Whitehall Rowboats

The origins of this distinctively elegant and extremely practical craft are unclear. In earlier times, however, builders were often sailors or seafaring men. Taught by the sea to be conservative, they stuck with the tried and true. Successful designs for large and small craft alike evolved slowly and as certain desirable qualities were attained and perfected they rarely changed.

Some hold that the Whitehall rowing boat design was introduced from England. However the famed nautical historian Howard I. Chapelle Howard Irving Chapelle was curator of maritime history at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.. In addition, he authored many books and articles books on maritime history and marine architecture, cites the opinion of the late W. P. Stephens that in New York City there is a Whitehall Street and this was where the Whitehall was first built. Chapelle, Stephens and others agree that the design came into existence some time in the 1820s in New York City, having first been built by navy yard apprentices who had derived their model to some extent from the old naval gig.

In Wooden Boats to Build and Use (1996), John Gardner of Mystic Seaport describes a 25-foot racing Whitehall, named American Star, which triumphed in an 1824 race in New York Harbor that according to newspapers of the time drew 50,000 spectators, more than any American sporting event ever until then. The following year the boat was gifted to an ageing General Lafayette, hero of the American Revolution, during his tour of the U.S. The American Star returned to Lafayette's estate in France where it was displayed in a specially constructed gazebo. During the mid 20th century the boat was rediscovered in storage there, and its lines have be preserved at Mystic Seaport where an exact replica was built in 1974-75, and still rows at Seaport events.

What makes a good rowboat

There are many considerations that go into selecting a good rowboat. A well designed rowboat will perform well in trying conditions. The classic shapes of rowboats reflect an evolution of hundreds of years old trial and error to get a good shape. Some factors that have to be considered are waterline length, speed, carrying capacity, stability, windage, weight, seaworthiness, cost, waterline beam, the fullness or fineness of the ends, trim and more.

Dealing with these issues in more detail it can be seen that these details are a compromise between competing factors. Example if the waterline beam (width) is too narrow the boat will be tender and the occupant at risk of falling out, if the beam is too high the boat will be slow and be caught up with the waves. Another issue is windage and freeboard, if the freeboard (height of the gunnel above the waterline) is too high then windage will be high and as a result the boat will be caught by the wind and the rower will not be able to control the boat in high winds, if the freeboard is too low, water will enter the boat through waves.

Another issue is trim, if the boat is designed for one person then only a single rowing position is required. If the rower is to carry a passenger at the stern then the boat will be stern heavy and trim will be out. To correct this a weight can be added to the bow, alternatively the boat can supply a second rowing position further forward for this purpose. For a boat to carry three separate thwarts as described and with adequate space for each occupant then the boat has to be of a certain minimum size. It is oft quoted that the ideal size of a good rowboat is 15ft.

Overall beam (width) is important too. If the rowlocks are too close together the oars will be difficult to use. If the rowlocks are too far apart then the boat will be overly large. Sometimes on faster rowboats for protected waters outriggers are added to increase rowlock separation. Many traditional rowboats have a beam of about 4.5ft.

Many old rowboats have very full ends (blunt ends), these may appear at first glance to be bad design as it looks slow, not fast. However a full ended rowboat will rise to a sea and not dig in as a finer hulled boat might do, thus a compromise needs to be made between the factors of speed and of seaworthiness.

Speed, a rowboat designed for carrying occupants to a boat berthed at a mooring might tend to be short and beamy, whilst a rowboat for use on rivers and to travel long distances might be long and narrow.

It can be seen that just by discussing a few issues that the design of a good classic rowboat is a very ingenious and sophisticated solution to the task of keeping people alive on the sea. Men who spent all their working lives at sea needed boats that would bring them safely home, the classic boats that were derived from this task, be they rowboats or otherwise are the end result of hundreds of years of evolution to the optimum solution

See also

• Rowing exercise
• Rowing (sport) Rowing is a sport in which athletes race against each other on rivers, on lakes or on the ocean, depending upon the type of race and the discipline. The boats are propelled by the reaction forces on the oar blades as they are pushed against the water. The sport can be both recreational, focusing on learning the techniques required, and competitive
• Ocean rowing Ocean rowing is the sport of rowing across oceans. The sport is as much a psychological as it is a physical challenge. Rowers often have to endure long periods at sea with help often many days if not weeks away. The challenge is especially acute for solo rowers who are held in especially high esteem within the sport. The history of ocean rowing is
• Coastal and ocean rowing Coastal and offshore rowing is a type of rowing performed at sea. Due to the harsher conditions encountered, the boats are wider and more robust than those used on rivers and lakes
• Sculling Sculling generally refers to a method of using oars to propel watercraft in which the oar or oars touch the water on both the port and starboard sides of the craft. By extension, the oars themselves are also often referred to as sculls when used in this manner
• Racing shell In watercraft, a racing shell (also referred to as just a fine boat or just shell) is an extremely narrow, and often disproportionately long, rowing boat specifically designed for racing or exercise. It is outfitted with long oars, outriggers to hold the oarlocks away for the boat, and sliding seats. The boat's long length and semicircular cross-

References

1. ^ "Speed Rower, Competitive Rowing". http://www.speedrower.com/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
2. ^ http://www.settesere.it/public/parser_download/save/allegati.2007.32.pag04.e05due.pdf Remando in piedi sul moscone. (Rowing standing up on the moscone).
3. ^ The Athenian Trireme: The History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship. J. S. Morrison, J. F. Coates, N. B. Rankov. Publisher: Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (20 Jul 2000), ISBN 0521564565, ISBN 978-0521564564
4. ^ Le barche at www.vogaveneta.it (Italian)
5. ^ La forcola - le barche per la Voga alla Veneta at www.vogaveneta.it (Italian)
6. ^ Venetian rowing technique at www.venetia.it

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